Niddah 38: Predicting Childbirth

For the sake of understanding states of niddah and ziva, the rabbis want to be able to understand the timing of conception, pregnancy, labour and post-labour.  We still want to be able to understand women's bodies.  The rabbis teach that a woman can conceive and go into labour on the two hundred and seventy-first, second or third day following conception (because conception itself might be slightly delayed).  This means that a normal pregnancy is a full nine months.  The rabbis also consider a pregnancy of seven months to be normal, for Channa went into labour after "two seasons".  

We learn that the pious men of old would have intercourse with their wives only from Wednesdays until Sundays to avoid the desecration of childbirth on a Shabbat.  However, Shabbat desecration is permitted after a mother gives birth.  A desecration of Shabbat to help a sick person may be hutra, entirely permitted, or dechuya, pushed aside.  The Chasidim HaRishonim considered desecrations of Shabbat in order to help the sick were dechuya, and so efforts were made to avoid any of this work on Shabbat.

The rabbis also speak at length about the number of days that a woman might be a zava, the number of days that she might see - or not see - blood while pregnant, and similar questions involving counting days.  It would seem that all of us hope to predict the unpredictable when we feel particularly out of control.  Childbirth is certainly one of those times.  

Niddah 36: Becoming a Zava During Childbirth

Today we learn about when a woman becomes a zava after childbirth.  A zava is a woman who experiences menstrual-type blood flow when she is not expecting menstrual bleeding.  Torah law says that she is a niddah whether she bleeds once or many times over a period of seven days.  After that time she immerses in the mikvah and is deemed ritually pure.  After that time, there are eleven days where she is called a yemei ziva.  If she bleeds during those days, she is called a zava.  

Being a zava is different from being a niddah.  Bleeding once or twice is called being a zava ketana, one who keeps watch a day for a day - she checks once each day for blood.  After bleeding on a third day, she is considered a zava gedola and must wait a full seven days without seeing blood.  After that period of time she can immerse in a mikvah and is allowed to be with her husband.  She brings a sacrifice the next day as part of her purification process which allows her to enter the Temple and consume sacrifices (reenter the community).  Proofs for this process are found in Vayikra (15:25-29).

Today's Mishna considers a woman in childbirth experiences bleeding.  If that bleeding occurs on days that she would be considered a niddah, she is called a niddah.  If it happens on days that she would be a zava, she would not become a zava.  This is because to be a zava, the blood would have to issue from her and not from the fetus.  It is impossible to determine whether the blood comes from her or from the fetus, and so she cannot be called a zava in such a case.

To imagine that a woman would be thinking about the stress of her status as a niddah or a zava while she is in labour is ridiculous.  To objectify her experience of childbirth to the external measurement of bleeding and counting days is insulting, as well.  Childbirth is the closest thing that human beings experience to G-dliness.  It is telling that the rabbis are able to reduce this experience to its relationship with states of ritual purity or status of the fetus, etc.

Niddah 35: Zavim, Tameh and an Ones

Today's daf is concerned with being a zav or zava.  A zava is a woman who is ritually pure following the seven or fourteen days after childbirth until an offering is brought to the Temple.  A zav is a man who has discharged any white, pus like fluid from his penis.  If this happens once, he is ritually impure for one day (just like a man who has discharged semen).  If this happens twice, the second time on the same or the next day (or one long emission), he is called a zav, where he is considered ritually impure for seven days.  If there is a third discharge within 24 hours of the second discharge, he must bring a sacrifice to the Temple to be deemed ritually pure.  Proof can be found in Vayikra (15:1-15) and in Massechet Zavim.

Rav Huna tells us that the first discharge of a zav will make him tameh, ritually impure.  The second discharge is not meaningful if it came from an ones, an external circumstance beyond his control.  Zavim (2:2) teaches us the seven bedikot, things that are checked, to determine whether the discharge was caused by an ones.  These are:

• ma'achal - overeating food
• mishteh - drinking too much
• masa - carrying a heavy burden
• kefitza - jumping
• choli - illness
• mar'eh - seeing a woman (even without having sensual thoughts)
• hirhur - having sensual thoughts (even without having seen a woman)

Tosafot define mar'eh as seeing a couple engaged in sexual relations, while the Rambam defines mar'eh as seeing a woman and fantasizing about her.  Other rabbis suggest that mar'eh refers to a person seeing something that frightens him/her, which is not related to thoughts of sexuality.

Niddah 34: Blood, Ziva, Jews, Non-Jews and Imparting Ritual Impurity

The Mishna on today's daf compares the blood of a menstruating gentile woman/gentile zava and the blood discharged by a female Jewish leper during the days of purity after childbirth.  Beit Shammai rule unusually leniently, deeming them ritually pure, and Beit Hillel argue that the blood of a gentile woman is the same as that of her saliva and her urine, which impart impurity only when moist.  They argue that even the blood discharged by a Jewish leper during those days imparts ritual impurity only when moist.  This refers to the seven days for a boy or fourteen days for a girl after child birth but before immersion.  

The rabbis discuss whether or not the transmission of impurity applies to both women and men.  And a gentile woman's saliva and urine might not impart impurity at all.  The Sages decide that the blood of a gentile woman is less common and it does impart ritual impurity.  

Moving along, the rabbis discuss the ziva, non-seminal discharge, of a Gentile man.  They also discuss the emission of the semen of a Gentile man by a Jewish woman.  His semen is considered to be ritually pure, and thus she is ritually pure even less than three twelve-hour periods after their act of intercourse.  Small amounts of urine are thought to escape with the emission of semen.  In the case of a Gentile woman who emits the semen of a Jew, the semen is impure because it came from a Jew.  The Gentile's semen is considered to be pure according to Torah law and impure according to rabbinic law.

Our daf continues to discuss the specifics of a zavim and lepers and their semen both inside and out of women's wombs.  

Today's daf mentions sexual relations between Jews and non-Jews casually and without commentary.  These relationships may be theoretical, but likely they were happening in the times of the Talmud as they happen in our times.  

Niddah 33: On Tzedokim, Perushim and the Difficulties with Niddah

We continue to compare Tzedokim, the strictly observant and elite Sadducees, with the Perushim or Pharisees, those who followed the rabbinic traditions of our Sages.  The rabbis understand that the Sadducees are devout, but they do not trust that they are so devout that they will reliably follow the laws regarding ritual purity.  Today's daf considers how ritual impurity is imparted from menstruating woman to her husband (and vessels and things that she lies or sits upon) to things that he sits upon or things that touch his body.  

The daf is also concerned with women checking themselves for blood at the appropriate times.  A new Mishna notes that Tzedokot or "girls" follow the ways of their ancestors unless we learn otherwise.  Rabbe Yosei states that Tzedokot do check with the Sages when they are unsure about their status, and so they can be trusted to not have intercourse with their husbands at inappropriate times.  Therefore they lessen the risk of imparting ritual impurity.  

The continual focus on the laws of Niddah is challenging.  Women's naturally functioning bodies are considered to be ritually impure for half of each month.  Although feminist interpretation suggests that ritual impurity allows for distance from the regular responsibilities and obligations of everyday life, it is difficult to imagine ritual impurity as a positive thing.  Ritual impurity suggests that we would interrupt or defile a sacred object or ceremony or person should we come into contact with them.  We do not cause that object or ceremony or person to become "better" in some way; those things are "worse" if they come into contact with us.  

It is understood that ritual impurity does not only apply to women while menstruating, but the study of Massechet Niddah immerses us in that particular form of condemnation.  And this is not something that we can stop by will, like masturbation.  It is the nature of niddah - diminishing something that represents the power of birthing - that sits heavy upon me as I read more and more about these laws.

Niddah 32: Kutim and Ritual Purity

Today we begin the fourth perek of Massechet Niddah.  It is called Benot Kutim, Samaritans, beginning with a description of how ritual purity affects these people.  Because the Kutim were considered to be extremely careful about their practice of halacha (or, at least, the mitzvot that they accepted as given by G-d), they could be trusted to be as ritually pure as the Sages would demand.  

Regarding niddah, the Kutim women were considered ritually impure after any discharge, even if it is green, which does not generally affect the status of a woman.  If she menstruated after this, the Kutim would begin her counting of days too early and then would conclude it too early.  This is why the Sages decided that the Kutim were called ritually impure permanently.  However, there is a story shared about a man whose spittle landed on the robe of a High Priest when they were speaking.  The women of the community had gone to the Sages with questions about ritual purity when they were unsure about discharge, and so ritual impurity had not touched the High Priest.

Steinsaltz teaches about the relationship between the Kutim and those who followed the rabbinical tradition.  After many years of conflict, it was decided that Kutim were not to be called Jewish; their traditions were distinctly different from Jewish traditions, mostly because of some forms of idol worship.  The Kutim may have been thought of as idol worshippers, even if they wished to convert to Judaism, and so such a conversion would not be accepted (Yevamot).  Now, Kutim do not worship idols and many people even accept them as part of the larger Jewish community.

Niddah 31: Who Creates an Embryo

On Niddah 30, we are told the story that embryos learn the entire Torah and at birth they are slapped by an angel which causes them to forget what they have learned.  We are given several stories that would justify this, including what would make learning easier in the future.  

On today's day, we learn that a child is born of their father's white seed which contributes to bones, sinews, brain, and white in the eyes.  They are born also of their mother's red seed, which contributes blood, flesh, skin and the black of their eyes.  G-d also contributes to the development of a child, including their spirit, soul, countenance, eyesight, hearing, speech, movement, understanding and wisdom.  When the child eventually dies, G-d takes back G-d's portion and leaves the other portions.

The Gemara notes that the father contributes five elements, the mother contributes four elements, and G-d contributes nine elements, which is the same amount as the mother and father's contributions combined.  Rav Aharon Kutna writes in Mishchat Aharon: these eighteen elements equal eighteen, which means "life" according to gemmatria. Once G-d takes G-d's elements, the person no longer has a life force which leads to death.

We learn that Rabbeinu Tam teaches that a mother and father each contribute five elements to an infant and G-d contributes ten elements.  The She'iltot speak of adding the element of blood so that the parents contribute equally.  The Netziv teaches in Ha'amek She'elah that mothers obviously contributed blood, and so it did not need to be noted.  

Niddah 29: When is a Child Actually Born? Unusual and Other Births

Rabbi Yochanan and Rabbi Elazar debate about what defines the birth of a child.  Must the bulk of a baby's head come out first, or must the bulk of the embryo be born?  The rabbis consider how much of a baby must be seen to be considered "born".  They also discuss think about what should be considered to be an unusual birth.  They wonder about twins, particularly when one twin is partially born and then the other twin is born first.  In such a case, is the firstborn the first or second child to be seen?  What if the first child is then born still?  The rabbis also discuss the difference between a stillborn baby and an embryo born in pieces.  

Niddah 28: Androgynos and Tumtum Offspring

After discussing the status of a woman who does not give birth but who's offspring shows his/her hand and then pulls it back, we turn to a new and important Mishna.  We learn that a woman might give birth to a child that is neither male nor female.  It might be an androgynos, one with both male and female genitalia, or a tumtum, one whose genitals are covered or hidden.  

Both are considered to be both male and female, where the mother is ritually impure due to childbirth for fourteen days like after having had a girl and any blood that she sees is ritually pure until forty days after birth, like having a having had a boy.  The Mishna considers the status of a woman who gives birth to twins: a tumtum and a female; an androgynos and a boy.  Then it mentions offspring who are born in pieces, who are born breech, and who are born with most of the head (to the forehead) first.

The Gemara discusses many issues, including whether or not those who are androgynos and those who are tumtum are included when the Torah mentions men and women.  Are these people included when we mention other sexes or are they their own genders?  How would this be proven?  The Gemara begins to examine valuation based on sex/gender.

Niddah 27: Multiple Pregnancies

We learn more about the birth of the placenta today.  Rabban ba Sheila says that Rav Mattana says in the name of Shmuelas that a placenta is considered to be connected to a birth that took place within ten days earlier.  Rabba bar bar Chana quotes Rabbi Yochanan saying that an afterbirth is connected to a birth that took place within twenty-three days earlier.  Rav Yosef said twenty--four days.  Rav Acha ben Rav Avira quoted Rabbi Yitchak saying that he know of a birth of a second child following the first birth after thirty-three (thirty-four, says Rav Yosef) days.  Rabbi Avin bar Adda quotes Rav Menachem ish Kfar She'arim (or Beit She'arim) saying that one incident describes a woman who was pregnant with twins where the birth of the second child took place thirty three days after the first.  This happened to Yehuda and Chizkiyya, the sons of Rabbi Chiyyah.

This contradicts Rav's ruling in yesterday's Mishna.  It also suggests that Rav, Rabbi Chiyya's nephew, did not properly know about the birth of his cousins' births.  Tosafot try to reconcile this by suggesting that Rav knew there were longer times between births but because it was unusual, it should not be used to develop halacha.  The Ran says that Rava's statement applies to situations where both fetuses were fully developed.  If one was not fully develop, it may remain in utero for longer periods of time.

Abaye explains Yehuda and Chizikiyya's births based on a rabbinic idea: normal gestation cycles are either seven or nine months.  Steinsaltz explains that this is not supported by modern science but that superfetation, a double pregnancy where a fetus is formed during an existing pregnancy, exists in rare cases.

Niddah 26: The Placenta and Ritual Impurity

To begin, we are reminded that when a woman gives birth she is tum'at leida, ritually impure through childbirth (Vayikra 12:1-5).  If she bears a boy, she is ritually impure for seven days; if she has a girl she is ritually impure for 14 days.  If she has a boy, any vaginal bleeding does not render her impure for 33 days.  If she has a girl, any vaginal bleeding does not refer her ritually impure for 66 days.  These laws apply to women who have miscarriages or babies who are stillborn.  

Today's Mishna teaches about the placenta.  It states that "if there is an afterbirth in the house, the house is ritually impure - not because the status of an afterbirth is that of an offspring, but because there is no afterbirth without an offspring".  The afterbirth demonstrates that there was a birth and thus tum'at leida apply.  We do not know whether the child was a girl or a boy and so both sets of laws are followed regarding ritual purity.

Rav teaches in the Gemara that

• Rav Yehuda quotes Rav teaching that if the placenta is born within three days after giving birth, it is considered to be part of the birthing process of that infant.  After that time, the placenta indicates a second birth, and the woman will have to follow the laws of one who gives birth to a placenta
• Rav teaches that two children in one pregnancy are always born immediately one after another.

How could Rav make both of these seemingly contradictory statements?  Rabbis discuss even three children in one birth and the delayed birth of twins or triplets.  The rabbis considered a baby who is born even a month after another.  The rabbis ask about pregnancies that happen concurrently, which we understand can happen under extremely rare circumstances.  Steinsaltz notes that many of these cases, one of the infants is absorbed by the other.

Niddah 25: Miscarriage in the Shape of a Sandal Fish

We have been learning about differently shaped miscarriages.  Today the rabbis suggest that if a miscarriage or an afterbirth is shaped like a sandal, it is not considered to have been a viable offspring and thus it does not render the woman ritually impure.  

The rabbis discuss what a sandal is.  Although there is one opinion that the sandal is the sandal that fits on one's foot, most rabbis agree that the sandal is referring to a sandal fish, which is flat with eyes on the sides of its head.  The rabbis go into great detail describing the look of a sandal fish.  One of the descriptions is that of a bull's tongue, which would stand whether the rabbis refer to a sandal or a sandal fish.  

These discussions are extremely coarse and without any emotion.  They are theoretical, legal arguments without regard for the woman whose lost fetus is being examined.  These arguments remind me of conversations in Massechets Kiddushin and Ketubot which were similarly focused on women's bodies and yet detached from women's lives.

Niddah 24: Miscarriage, Viable Offspring, Ritual Purity and Lilliths (Female Demons)

The first part of our daf considers women who give birth to offspring with severe disabilities.  Are they viable?  How long will they survive outside of the mother's body?  Many disabilities, including fused skulls, fused esophaguses, and flat faces to be reason enough to deem an offspring not viable, thus not a true childbirth, and thus not causing ritual impurity in the mother.  Other conditions, like a child with two spines and two backs, also fall into this category.  A crooked spine, however, will lead to a viable offspring but one who is blemished.  Thus if he is a priest, he will not be able to serve in the Temple.

The rabbis also discuss the length of time that a fetus has been in the womb of a woman and how that might affect viability.  They also discuss consumption of animals' offspring when they are born at different gestational lengths.

What if a woman gives birth to one with the form of a human but with wings?  First of all, is this giving birth, or is it simply expelling discharge?  The former leads to ritual impurity and an offering, while that latter does not.  Some rabbis consider this to be a Lillith, and Lillith is called a female demon by several of these rabbis.  The rabbis note that once it was ruled that such an offspring a viable child but it had wings, thus demystifying the demonic connections with Lillith.  Rambam was scientific and rational in his examinations, and he named such an offspring as a child with what looks like wings on its back.  

It is noted that Rabbi Chanina once deemed a woman ritually pure after having an offspring that looked like a snake.  He was about to be chastised by Rabbi Gamliel when it was learned that Chanina's ruling was based on Gamliel's teaching about the shape of the eyes of an offspring.  Gamliel did not go further with his admonition given that the ruling was based on his own teaching.  This is used as a principle: rabbis should state the reasons behind their rulings and not just their rulings.

Niddah 23: Rabbi Zeira Doesn't Think It's Funny

Today's daf speaks of miscarriages where the fetus emerges looking like an animal, a bird, part of a human, etc.  The rabbis make decisions about when the offspring is considered to be the miscarriage of a human form and thus the woman is ritually pure.  Very often part of a fetus is discharged, and women were not considered to be ritually impure after these miscarriages.

At one point, Rabbi Yirmeya speaks about an animal developing as a human embryo and thus becoming betrothed one day.  In fact, this betrothal could cause a problem because of Chalitza.  Rabbi Zeira does not find this funny.  He treated Torah study with extreme seriousness, even suffering needlessly to prove his love for Torah.  It is good to learn that other rabbis hoped to help him gain perspective on Torah learning, even if their example was somewhat insensitive.

Niddah 22: Discharging Items that Might Render a Woman Ritually Impure

Yesterday's Mishna noted that if a woman discharges a number of things that are red - things in the shape of shells, or hairs, for example - she is ritually impure if they are indeed blood.  Today's daf clarifies how this was done.  A woman would ask her rabbi about the discharged items. The rabbis would suggest that she put them in water to see if they dissolve.  If so, they are blood and she is deemed ritually impure.  If they remain intact, a doctor is consulted.  

Two examples are provided.  Rabbi Elazar ben Rabbi Tzadok told stories of his father being asked for advice.  If the rabbis of Yavne did not know the answer, a doctor would be consulted.  The doctor explained that items that look like red hairs are actually from a mole within a woman's uterus that released hairs.

These stories are still used to prove that experts can be consulted, even by rabbis, when the rabbis do not have full knowledge of a subject.  One of the great measures of Judaism is its capacity to hold many opinions.  Even more, when showing humility, the great rabbis teach us to listen, not only to preach about what we think we understand.

Niddah 21: Discharge of Different Types of Blood

Today's daf begins Perek III.  It begins with a Mishna about childbirth, which states that women will be named ritually impure if they discharge anything with blood from their uteruses.  This includes any amorphous discharge, anything shaped like a shell, or soil, or a mosquito, or a small despised thing like a reptile, or even a small animal.  Different tests are required, including putting these things in water to check for blood or bones, but we know that the rabbis consider women to be ritually impure if there is a question of childbirth, stillbirth, or miscarriage.  

The Mishna continues, discussing different consequences of male children and female children (where ritual impurity lasts for different amounts of time for male and female children).  The rabbis consider situations that might cause them to consider a woman ritually pure after discharge through the vaginal canal.

Niddah 20: Black Menstrual Blood

Today's daf begins with a descriptions of different shades of black.  Ink, black olives, tar, ravens - the rabbis suggest that if menstrual blood is lighter than these shades of black, it is ritually pure.  If it is that dark, it is ritually impure.

The rabbis wonder whether or not bath attendants from other places wear black clothing.  Rabbi Yanai is said to have told his sons not to bury him in white nor in black so that he not seem like a bridegroom amongst mourners or a mourner amongst bridegrooms.  

The rabbis consider sources of blood other than menstruation.  The blood of desire was identified by its smell.  Then there was the blood of lice, where the rabbi would provide a woman with a comb for removing lice.  The rabbis also consider the colour of diluted wine when examining blood for ritual impurity.

Niddah 19: The Colours of Menstrual Blood

A new Mishna discusses the five different colours of women's menstrual blood.  Red, black, the bright colour of the crocus, the colour of water, and the colour of diluted wine.  Of course, the rabbis specify further, for example, is the red the colour of a wounded animal, or a wounded finger, etc.?  They also consider which colours might be ritually impure and which would be considered to be ritually pure.

One of the main comparisons is between menstrual blood and the colour of blood when bloodletting. As Weill, there is much discussion of menstrual blood which is closer to black or green in colour.  

How does one decide whether blood is ritually impure or not?  The rabbis compare menstrual blood to leprous marks. Leprous marks are noted for their paleness; their colour determines whether or not they indicate ritual impurity.  

Niddah 18: Women's Bodies as Architecture

Both yesterday and today's daf debates several points regarding what is permitted around intercourse. One point is that a man should not be made to find his wife repulsive, and so if lights must be turned off to achieve that end, so be it.  Another is that one must not cut and dispose of one's nails in public. More: one should not eat peeled foods - garlic, onion, egg - after the day that they have been peeled, one should not have intercourse after bloodletting for it weakens the body and thus the person to be conceived.  

We learn that if snow becomes ritually impure, only the spot touched is impure.  However, if one holds an earthenware vessel over the pile of snow, the entire thing is not ritually pure.

A new Mishna teaches that a woman's organs are known as the corridor, which is the vaginal canal, the inner room, which is the uterus, and the upper storey, which is the bladder.  Blood from the corridor and the upper story are ritually pure, but all are said to be ritually impure because it is not known whether or not the blood originated in the inner room.  There is also said to be a vestibule between the inner room and the upper storey.  Blood coming from below the vestibule might be ritually pure.  It is difficult to understand how the the rabbis could imagine that this would be  determined.

Many euphemisms are used for sexual relations; particularly for women's body parts.  The face, eating bread... It would seem that the rabbis were embarrassed to discuss these things.  But clearly, they were not embarrassed at all.  Every subject is open for Torah interpretation.  Perhaps especially women's bodies, which are so often off limits in every manner. 

Niddah 17: Intercourse During the Day, What is Hated by G-d, Privacy

After a long discussion about examination of cloths, the rabbis continue that discussion with a new Mishna.  In it, Best Hillel claims that women should examine themselves before and after each act of intercourse over the course of one night, and thus there should be light in the room.  Beit Shammai disagrees, of course.  Instead, women should examine themselves once before the first act of intercourse and once after the last act of intercourse over the course of one night.  

The rabbis consider several issues:

• whether a drop of blood might have been covered up by semen in a subsequent act of intercourse - this drop might be missed if an examination does not happen between each act
• Whether or not it is permitted to have intercourse during the day, as the laws of modesty suggest that we do not look at nakedness
• Whether or not it is enough to create darkness within the home, even by using one's clothing to cover the bodies
• whether exceptional circumstances, like being overcome with great desire, could permit intercourse during the day
• if the examination cloth is lost, whether the examination must be repeated 

The rabbis attempt to interpret the phrase, "everything is in the hand of Heaven except for the fear of heaven".  They speak of the angel of conception being available at night, and how this angel takes a drop of semen and shows it to the Lord so that G-d will describe what kind of person this will become.  We are also told that there are several things hated by G-d that are also hated by others, including one who goes to public drinking houses chats, or is short-tempered, or lives in the highest house, or urinates while holding his penis, or suddenly enters a home (for he could disturb those who assume privacy).

It seems that much of today's day is about privacy.  How private are the most private activities?  These are not hypothetical situations, but the realities of people's daily lives.  How do we understand what information can be determined by individuals, couples, rabbis, communities, or only by G-d?

Niddah 15; Assumptions about a Change in Status.

Does it matter if a woman immerses in a mikvah?  Today's daf looks at safek, what is unknown, and vadai, what is reality.  If a woman returns from mikvah, should her husband assume that she has changed status from niddah to ritually pure?  We are told the story of a maidservant who drops a non-viable infant into a pit.  When a priest looks to see whether the child is male or female (to determine other rituals), he could have become ritually impure.  The rabbis say that he is ritually pure, since the infant likely was removed by a weasel or another predatory animal.

Niddah 14: Couples Examining for Menstrual Blood

We begin with an interesting conversation about men's avoidance of seminal emissions.  They are not to sleep on their backs, which may lead to such an occurrence.  But one must not say the bedtime Shema while on one's back; it should be said while standing and clothed.  If a person is too large or tired to turn to their side to say the Shema, it is permitted to remain lying on one's back.  Lying slightly to the side is alright.  Lying on one's stomach would mean that a man's penis is touching the bed, which seems to be dangerous if trying to avoid arousal.  

A new Mishna teaches that a woman who does not menstruate regularly should examine herself both before and after intercourse for blood.  Her husband should also examine himself after intercourse.  If either of them find blood after intercourse, they are both ritually impure for seven days, after which they are to bring sin offerings.  Especially modest women check with three different cloths.  Even if women check themselves hours after intercourse, finding blood is arguably a determination of ritual impurity retroactively.

The rabbis suggest several opinions regarding how these cloths are used, when they are used, and when their findings lead to ritual impurity.  There is a debate about blood found when a woman is urinating might have originated in the urethra or the uterus.  There are many rabbis who agree that any blood found, even if the examination cloth was not checked properly pre-intercourse, means that the couple is retroactively ritually impure. Stringency is expected by many rabbis when it comes to menstrual blood.

The rabbis also discuss how the cloth might be used after intercourse.  It would happen immediately, while still in bed.  A woman could put the cloth under the blanket and immediately check herself.  Anything after that time is considered to be much later, and not as reliable.  However, it would still result in a stringent ruling according to most rabbis.

Niddah 13: Prohibitions on Examinations, Masturbation, Seminal Emissions

There are two Mishnayot in today's daf, which begins the second perek of Massechet Niddah.  They assert that a woman who cannot examine herself (often one who is deaf/blind or an 'imbecile') may be examined by woman friend to prepare her for partaking of teruma, but a man who examines her should have his hand cut off.  The Gemara suggests that women would not be aroused by this type of examination, while men might be aroused.  There is some discussion about. whether a man who does such examinations regularly (compared with those who do this occasionally) might not be aroused by such examinations.

It is important to note that the rabbis base their conversations on the prohibition against 'wasting semen'.  Several different proof texts are provided to help us remember that expelling semen without the possibility of a pregnancy is a crime worthy of the death penalty.  

The rabbis discuss what a man should do if he becomes aroused.  Is he permitted to hold his penis so that the arousal diminishes?  Only a coarse cloth would be used for such an action, as a soft cloth might encourage further arousal.  What about when urinating - is a man permitted to hold his penis at that time?  Does it matter where he holds his penis?  Does it matter whether or not he is married?  We learn that holding toward the tip of the penis is permitted as it this does not cause arousal, and that married men do not have as powerful inappropriate sexual urges, and so they are permitted to hold their penises while urinating.  Before deciding this, however, there is much discussion of the importance of urinating away from oneself without touching one's penis. 

There is further conversation about how to manage men's seminal emissions, particularly those who are "imbeciles" and might not understand when they have emissions nor how to ritually purify themselves.  It is suggested that they cover their penises with pouches that show any semen emitted.  The rabbis suggest that that pouch be made of metal so that the semen is not absorbed.  It is hard to imagine just how uncomfortable this apparatus might be.

The rabbis discuss whether or not a man's hand should actually be cut off, or whether this is a more metaphoric understanding.  They also discuss men who have converted to Judaism as dangerous - they might "play with children" and teach children inappropriate lessons.  This is taken to mean that converts could marry girls who are not yet ready to have children.  It is prohibited to marry girls who are not ready to have children, for intercourse with these girls would also be a "waste of semen".  Sad that this is not because of child abuse, but these are the reasons understood in the time of the Talmud.  

Men should hot encourage any thoughts which might encourage a seminal emission.  They should change their thoughts to "higher" thoughts of Torah rather than on these lower, worldly topics.  Masturbation is considered to be a form of adultery, whether it is done "with one's hand or one's foot".  

The rabbis are clearly attempting to force sexual urges to be expressed within the somewhat narrow confines of male/female marital relationships.  This form of societal control is one of the simplest way to enforce an entire societal structure, for it creates family units that rely on divisions of labour and gendered roles/relationships within the community.

Today's daf also makes one wonder why a woman who is deaf and blind or an 'imbicile' would be preparing for intercourse at all.  Were these women able to consent to intercourse at all?  The assumption is that all women want to have intercourse, within the boundaries of marriage, to whichever man they have been promised.

Niddah 12: Examinations Before and After Intercourse

Today's daf focuses on how often a woman should examine herself for blood to ensure that she is a niddah.  If she finds blood, she is a niddah and ritually pure items become ritually impure.  This includes her husband - if intercourse with his wife leads him to have touched her menstrual blood, he is now ritually impure and must bring a sin offering.

Rabbi Zebra says that she should examine herself before intercourse.  Rav Yehuda disagrees, suggesting that her husband might become insecure about her status which could affect his desire to be sexually intimate with his wife.  The rabbis debate about examinations both before and after intercourse.  Modest women were said to check themselves before intercourse if they were fully awake.  Men are not permitted to have intercourse with their wives if their wives are asleep (Nedarim 20b).  However, women might be groggy and not examine themselves.

The rabbis also speak about women who are have irregular cycles.  The rabbis argue about whether or not they are always required to examine themselves before and after intercourse, even though this might affect husbands negatively.  Some women might use the same cloth to check themselves before and after intercourse, which would not be as "modest".  

The Rema reminds us that women who have set menstrual cycles need not check themselves before and/or after intercourse.  

Niddah 11: Attempts to Develop a Predictable Menstrual Cycle

If a woman has a veset kavuah, a regular menstrual cycle, she becomes a niddah only at the moment that she sees blood and not before that point, retroactively, which would cause ritual impurity to have been imparted on anything she touched.  The rabbis acknowledge that most women cannot predict the exact day that they will menstruate.  However, a veset kavuah is established once she menstruates on the same day of the Hebrew month for three consecutive months.  

Rav Huna teaches us that women can create a regular cycle.  One example involves jumping - if a woman can perform a physical action that leads her to menstruate three months in a row, she has created a predictable cycle.  Rashi suggests that other actions like carrying something heavy or suffering from an illness might create a regular cycle as well.

The Ritva, Rashi and other rishonim suggest that when a woman may create a veset, a predictable cycle, she has to expect her period and become a niddah every time that she does that action.   The Rashba, Tosafot and others teach that a woman must have another factor involved to create a veset for a physical action.  For example, if she jumps three times on a specific day of the week and she menstruates each time, the women will establish a veset for jumping on that day.  If she jumps on different days she need not expect menstruation.

The rabbis seem to be balancing a number of factors: the need to understand menstruation, the need to understand women's control over menstruation, the need to connect their system of ritual purity with women's menstrual cycles, among other items.  

Niddah 10: Nursing, Menstruation and Pregnancy

It is understood that a woman will not begin menstruating again until approximately two years after childbirth assuming that she is nursing.  The rabbis discuss how we would know that a woman would be pregnant or nursing.  The Tanna Kamma says that when one can see that she is pregnant and from the beginning of nursing, the rules regarding her status with ritual purity.  Rabbi Yosei says that she must have missed her period for three months in a row to be assessed as pregnant or nursing.

The Gemara considers Rabbi Yosei's opinions to be mutually exclusive.  If a nursing woman becomes pregnant, the laws of ritual purity then apply and she does not need to miss another three menstrual cycles before recognizing the pregnancy.  

Unlike any woman, the rabbis wonder whether it is possible for a nursing woman to become pregnant.  Later in this Massekhet (daf 38b) we will learn that a woman only becomes pregnant close to her immersion in the mikvah (which would also be close to her time of ovulation), which only happens when she is menstruating.  Tosafot suggests that it is understood that women can become pregnant at different times but that these were the optimal times for conception.  Thus a woman can become pregnant while nursing without having had a period between the two pregnancies.

Niddah 9: Menstrual Cycles While Nursing

A brief note about today's daf: we have learned that women who are nursing are permitted to be in a state of niddah from the time that they find blood rather than in advance of that examination.  Today's daf considers a number of considerations regarding nursing.  The rabbis suggest that women are expected to begin menstruating again two years after giving birth, even if they continue to nurse until the child is four or five years old.  

The rabbis have said that menstrual blood turns to milk, and that women's limbs become dislocated and their spirits are removed from their bodies for the first two years after childbirth. What do these words mean?  We learn that blood is assumed to break down into all necessary parts of the body. When nursing, more blood is required, especially in and around the breasts, to support the creation of milk.  After childbirth, the rabbis assume that the body is working toward supporting another person, and so the menstrual cycle is affected.